Chippewa land cessions, 1837-1854. Map by Sean Hartnett.

Sewing room at Lac du Flambeau federal Indian boarding school, 1895. FrontRow (l-r): Jenny LaCass, Annie Cedarroot, Annie Corn. BackRow (l-r): Mary Bluesky, Mary Devine, Jessie Chapman, Rose Chapman, unknown, Mable Nagonabeniece, Mrs. Kate Eastman (teacher), unknown. State Historical Society of Wisconsin.

The military strength of the United States grew in the 19th century, along with its booming citizenry. The U.S. population, boosted by European immigration, nearly doubled from 1840-1860, and by 1900 soared to more than 74 million. Persistent demands by settlers for land and resources gradually compelled the federal government to acquire lands in "Indian country," often by force. Many tribes in the eastern United States suffered great hardships as they were relocated to reservations west of the Mississippi. However, by the 1850s, even these lands were being sought after by westward-moving settlers and capitalists.

By the end ofthe century, white Americans, pursuing "manifest destiny," ruled lands from the Atlantic to the Pacific, completely surrounding what remained of "Indian country." American Indians came to be treated, at best, with paternalism. Concerned citizens called for policies that would extend the blessings of American "civilization" to the "unfortunate" Indian peoples. Others, not so well-intended, maneuvered for access to remaining Indian lands. Together, they comprised an assault on American Indians, threatening to eradicate their cultures and, in some cases, the people themselves.

During this period, the Ojibwe managed to remain in the Chippewa Valley, yet they saw their land base drastically reduced, and their way of life severely impaired. By the 1920s, Ojibwe children could hardly expect to enjoy the life led by their grandparents. Indeed, many could scarcely imagine it.

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